Intergenerational Versus Intra-Generational Equity Essays

Intergenerational Versus Intra-Generational Equity Essays Intergenerational Versus Intra-Generational Equity Paper Intergenerational Versus Intra-Generational Equity Paper Whilst the notions of intergenerational equity and intra-generational equity are not always completely incompatible, the assumption that they are necessarily mutually reinforcing is certainly misguided. The notions of equity as between noncontemporaries and contemporaries can quickly be distinguished. The former requires thought about levels of savings of natural and other assets over time. The latter is inherently connected to distributive politics between contemporaries. The notion of distributive justice between contemporaries is a highly contested area, of course, and presents a great potential constraint on the exercise of the principle of intergenerational equity. Those who mention the two notions within one breath underemphasise, in this author’s view, the deep-seated potential for conflict between them. If more than lip-service is to be paid to either principle, then they must be distinguished from one another. Legal academics and judges would do better to draw out the distinction between the two terms and consider both their competing and complementary requirements in any given case. It may be that judges are in some cases forced to delineate a hierarchy between the two competing considerations. Though preferable to decision-making that fails to confront the issue, such a decision would be a fraught task. One school of tresources away from the needy of the current hought would hold that the quest for intra-generational equity should never trump that of intergenerational equity. This type of approach sees intergenerational equity as anterior to intra-generational equity in the sense that unless certain aspects of the natural environment are preserved for future generations, there will be no patrimony to be distributed geographically within future generations. According to this view, there are certain environmental imperatives that must occur even at the expense of some members of the current generation. This is the type of view likely to be associated with deep ecology, but a parallel can be seen in some views of fiscal policy. By contrast, another school of thought holds striving for intergenerational equity through future-oriented redistribution is unjust to the extent that it moves resources away from the needy of the current generation. Drawing on Rawls’ notion of just savings, Frà ©dà ©ric Gaspart and Axel Gosseries note that transfers of generational (as opposed to purely private) savings to future generations might be regarded as unfair ‘toward the least well-off members of the current generation.’ They put it this way: â€Å"Imagine that a given generation anticipates that at the end of its existence a surplus is likely to be transferred to the next generation on top of the equivalent of what the current generation inherited to the previous one. If the constitution of such a surplus is likely, it should benefit the least well-off members of the current generation rather than the next generation as a whole.† It is worth noting that Gaspart and Gosseries do not see this approach as in any way inimical to impartiality between generations; they stress that this argument does not ‘presuppose any priority of intra-generational justice over intergenerational justice.’ It would, however, require intra-generational redistribution of savings as to occur before any intergenerational redistribution: any inequity within the current generation would have to be addressed before generational savings could be put away for future generations. More broadly, there seems to be a failure by those touting the notion of sustainable development to confront the dilemma posed by the (often) contradictory requirements posed by these two ethical aims. Perhaps Gaspart and Gosseries are correct on a theoretical level in suggesting that the attainment of intra-generational equity need not rule out intergenerational equity. However, in the concrete and more bounded situations likely to be heard by judges, in which only the parties before the court have standing in the matter at hand, and in which only the principle of intergenerational is to be applied, it seems likely that some decisions will have to set aside the geographical demands of equity in order to focus on the temporal. On a final note, while the two concepts roll quite glibly off the tongue together, after a moment’s consideration it seems somewhat odd that the notions of intergenerational and intra-generational equity terms should be associated in the first place. Common law (and other) legal systems are infused to their very core with the notions of equity and fairness between contemporaries. Intergenerational equity, however, offers something different – an attempt to facilitate a level of justice between members of different generations, and in doing so presents a potential key to the instigation of a longer term decision-making process. This is something that common law legal systems have not prioritised in the past (and understandably so: not only is the structure of the common law legal system poorly equipped for such an approach, but also achieving justice between contemporaries is hard enough in itself). However, the long-term nature of complex environmental problems creates the need for innovation within the legal system. The notion of intergenerational equity, while fraught with challenges, presents an opportunity for the law to take a new approach to justice over the long-term. The fact that Australian judges have taken a cumulative approach to assessing impacts upon future generations indicates an appreciation for the central temporal quality of the principle of intergenerational equity. Administrative Law as Environmental Governance The judgements in Gray, Taralga, and Walker are grounded in administrative law. More specifically, they each deal with administrative decisions concerning environmental impact assessment. They form part of a broader ascension of administrative law as a tool for environmental legal challenge in Australia. Bell and McGillivray note that ‘environmental law has not been developed as a self-contained discipline, but has simply borrowed concepts from other areas of law.’ When new types of environmental problem, such as climate change, arise, environmental solutions must take whatever form they can. The use of administrative law as a form of environmental redress has both advantages and limitations in the context of the principle of intergenerational equity. In addition to being a well-established area of law, administrative law has the advantage of offering preventative, rather than reactive, forms of redress. The temporal characteristics of environmental problems can present a particular challenge when it comes to finding an appropriate legal remedy. Environmental solutions conceived under the common law, such tort actions in nuisance or negligence, have traditionally been reactive rather than preventative. Moreover, with respect to climate change, the temporal disconnection between the causes of global warming (carbon dioxide emissions) and its negative effects (for example, extreme weather events) appears to contribute to the difficulty plaintiffs face in proving causation in negligence suits. By allowing parties to challenge administrative decisions affecting the environment that have failed to consider ESD principles, the administrative law approach facilitates the prevention, rather than the retrospective compensation for environmental harm. This helps to give proper effect to the notion of intergenerational equity, which requires that the interests of future generations be taken into account in decision-making. Administrative law also has a number of limitations as a means for facilitating the principle of intergenerational equity. Generally, judges conducting judicial review of an administrative decision are prevented from reviewing the decision on its merits. In such cases, judges must restrict themselves to determining the legality of the decision-making process, rather than the merits of the decision itself. The NSWLEC is distinctive in that it has a merits review jurisdiction in addition to its ordinary judicial review jurisdiction. In cases falling under its merits review jurisdiction, the NSWLEC is required to put itself in the shoes of the original administrative decision-maker and to make a new decision. As Biscoe J notes in Walker, most of the NSWLEC’s decision on ESD principles have occurred within the Court’s merits review jurisdiction. While this affords the Court an opportunity to discuss the constitution of ESD principles in depth, it is unclear to what extend decisions made under this special jurisdiction can be deemed to contribute to the development of jurisprudence. Jagot J notes in Drake-Brockman v Minister for Planning that ‘care must be taken in applying observations about the level or extent of issues found to be appropriate in merits appeals to other contexts.’ In that case, Jagot J refused to accept the Applicant’s argument that Gray stood for a general proposition an environmental impact assessment will be inadequate if it does not include a quantitative analysis of greenhouse gas emissions. Jagot J distinguished Gray on the grounds that, essentially, it was the process of decision-making that had been flawed in Gray, rather than the substance of the decision itself: what appeared to have been critical in Gray was the disjunction between what the Director-General required †¦ and what the Director-General accepted as adequate†¦ Gray does not stand for a general proposition that Pt 3A of the EPA Act requires any particular form of assessment of greenhouse gas emissions for each and every project to which that Part applies. The foregoing suggests one should be cautious about reading too much into the substance of decisions on ESD principles, particularly to the extent that decisions on substance coincide with decisions based on well-established principles of administrative law. By contrast, while merits review is generally overlooked as a source of legal reasoning, Elizabeth Fisher has demonstrated (in the context, particularly, of Australian specialist environmental tribunals) that merits review has more precedential value than is commonly recognised. Fisher argues that while merits review decisions are traditionally seen as lacking a ratio decidendi, ‘the reality is †¦ that in environmental and planning law practice and scholarship merits review decisions are treated as ratios for lawyers and primary decision-makers alike.’ She notes that merits review decisions are often included in volumes of law reports and cited by judges as legal authorities. This is true of all of the three cases examined most closely in this Chapter, notwithstanding Jagot J’s scepticism in Drake-Brockman v Minister for Planning.   While Fisher is sympathetic to Jagot J’s words of caution, and notes that there is great variation between tribunals as to what constitutes the process and impact of merits review, her work nonetheless demonstrates that the merits review decisions cannot be dismissed as extra-legal. Far from it, merits review decisions are helping to develop jurisprudence within environmental law. A separate but related point with respect to constructing a jurisprudence of intergenerational equity through administrative law is that there is a risk that the principle will come to be treated as a procedural step in development decisions rather than a principle of wide applicative scope. In Bentley v BGP Properties Pty Ltd, a case, once again, dealing with the requirements of an environmental impact assessment, Preston J stated that the requirement for prior environmental impact assessment and approval enables the present generation to meet its obligation of intergenerational equity by ensuring the health, diversity and productivity of the environment is maintained and enhanced for the benefit of future generations’. This view, if read as describing the exhaustive role of the principle of intergenerational equity, greatly diminishes the scope of the principle. A preferable view would be that prior environmental impact assessment is a necessary but insufficient requirement of the notion of intergenerational equity in the specific context of some planning decisions under the relevant legislation. Conclusion The interests of future generations are often at odds with those of the present, particularly in the context of the environment. Legislators, as elected representatives of current generations, have little incentive to make laws that protect the environmental well-being of future generations if those laws in any way restrict the way of life of their living constituency. Even where legislators do enact measures that risk current unpopularity for a future gain, their work may be repealed by a more populist successor; parliaments cannot bind their successors. On a more local scale, administrative decision-makers are often tempted by similarly short-term incentives. For these reasons, the principle of intergenerational equity is a hopeful addition to environmental law. Though thus far little-used, the principle aims to balance the interests of current and future generations in decision-making, in particular with respect to the environment. In Australian legislation, the definition of the principle of intergenerational equity is vague. Legislators have left the elucidation of the principle to the Courts. Academic interest in the principle has generally focused on its normative basis; this Chapter has sought to elucidate the practical implications of the principle by examining its appearance in Australian case law, where the jurisprudence on the principle is most developed. The practical impact of the principle of intergenerational equity is potentially far-reaching, and as such judges have been given a wide discretion with respect to the environmental interests of future generations. Given the failure of legislators to protect the environmental interests of future generations where they conflict with the current interests (usually economic) of current constituencies, the tempering potential for the principle of intergenerational equity is profound. Moreover, the tenured and independently appointed judiciary is structurally less beholden to short-term considerations than those in the legislature. An examination of three relevant cases reveals the formation of a nascent jurisprudence on intergenerational equity within Australia. As the first of its kind globally, the impact of this jurisprudence could influence case law beyond Australia. These cases, all occurring within the context of administrative decisions about planned developments, show that the principle intergenerational equity requires administrative decision-makers to do a number of things. First, decision-makers must consider the cumulative environmental impact of proposed decisions. This is significant in that it attempts to prevent the creeping accumulation of negative environmental impacts, however small individually. Second, it demonstrates the propensity of the judiciary to take a longer term view of environmental management. Third, the decision in Gray suggests that the principle of intergenerational equity requires more than the mere flagging of environmental issues in an impact assessment, instead it require s a thorough consideration of their impact within the relevant contextual setting. This suggests that judges are unwilling to allow the environmental impact assessment process to become a mere box-ticking exercise. The decision in Taralga moved beyond the environmental impact assessment context to that of energy production and is sweeping in its scope. In this context, the Court found that the principle not only demands that the process of production and use of energy occur in a manner which accounts for the requirements of future generations, but also requires new types of clean energy production to be substituted increasingly for old, emissions-intensive methods. The reach of this finding is potentially great – it seems likely that were it applied to prevent the construction of, for example, a new coal mine, it would spark a legislative reaction. Perhaps of more general applicability is the Court’s finding in this case that the long-term interests of a community may at times trump the narrow, immediate interests of the present. The jurisprudence on intergenerational equity is of course very limited. This article has aimed to sketch a preliminary picture of the principle to date, and to draw from it implications about the power of the principle to overcome the short-term focus of many environmental projects when left to the legislature. The feature that sets apart the principle of intergenerational equity from other pieces of environmental law is its focus on redressing the imbalance between current and future interests. The Australian legislation has left the development of the principle in the hands of judges, a (perhaps unintentionally) wise decision given the general inability of legislators to make current sacrifices in order to achieve long-term benefits. In the case of Taralga in particular, the NSWLEC has shown a willingness to genuinely balance narrow current interests with broader future ones, finding in favour of the future. As Preston CJ noted, ‘resolving this conundrum’ is ‘not easy’. Nonetheless, this finding in particular embodies the spirit of the principle of intergenerational equity and offers some hope that its influence may in time play a part in tipping the balance back toward the future. Next Page   VI. Investing in the Future Previous Page   Implications

What to Expect on College Move-In Day

What to Expect on College Move-In Day The excitement on a college campus during move-in day is palpable. New students are moving in, parents are trying to figure out how to help, and there are usually just enough student orientation leaders and staff members to create the perfect mixture of confusion and assistance. How can you keep yourself on track? Know the Schedule and Stick to It If youre moving into a campus residence hall room, you most likely have been assigned a very specific time for unloading your items. Make sure to stick with this schedule. Not only will things be easier for you during your time to unload, but they will also be easier for you for the rest of the day. Move-in day is usually crammed full of events, meetings, and to-dos, so sticking to your assigned move-in time is of high importance.  Every minute of your move-in day is scheduled for a reason: there is a lot to cover and all of it is important. Go to every event youre assigned to, be there on time, and take notes. Chances are your brain will be overloaded by the time the day is over and those notes will come in handy later. Expect to Be Separated from Your Parents At some point during move-in day, you actually will have to be separated from your parents. Often, however, this will happen before they officially leave campus. Your parents may have a special schedule to go to that has separate events from yours. Expect this to happen and, if need be, brace your parents for it. Try Not to Be Alone Its no secret that the plan for the day is to keep you from being alone. Why? Well, just imagine what move-in day would be like without all of those scheduled events. Students would be kind of  lost, unsure of where to go, and would probably end up just hanging out in their new rooms- not the best way to meet a lot of people and get to know the school. So, even if you think the event after dinner sounds totally lame, go. You may not want to go, but do you want to miss out on what everyone else is doing? Keep in mind that the first few days of orientation are often when a lot of students meet each other, so its critical to get out of your comfort zone and join the crowd- you dont want to miss out on this vital opportunity to start making new friends. Get to Know Your Roommate There may be a lot going on, but spending a little time getting to know your roommate- and setting up some ground rules- is also super important. You dont have to be besties with your roommate, but you should at least get to know each other a little bit on move-in day and during the rest of the orientation. Get  Some Sleep! Chances are, move-in day- and the rest of orientation- will be one of the busiest times of your college life, but that doesnt mean you shouldnt take care of yourself a little, too. True, you will probably be up super late talking with people, reading all the material you were given, and just enjoying yourself, but remember that its also important to get at least a little sleep so you can stay positive, healthy, and energetic over  the next few days. Know That Its OK to Feel Sad Youre in college now! Your parents have left, the day is over, and youre finally all settled down in your new bed. Some students feel overwhelmingly happy, some feel overwhelmingly sad and scared, and some students feel all of these things at the same time! Be patient with yourself and know that you are making a humongous life adjustment and that all of your emotions are totally normal. You worked hard to get where you are and, while it may be scary, it can still be fantastic at the same time. Congratulate yourself on a job well done, let yourself be sad when you need to, and get ready to start your new college life- after a good nights sleep, of course.

Business management - Starbucks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Business management - Starbucks - Essay Example Information obtained from http://investor.starbucks.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=99518&p=irol-irhome, also posits to the effect that â€Å"Starbucks purchases and roasts high-quality whole bean coffees and sells them, along with fresh, rich-brewed coffees, Italian-style espresso beverages, cold blended beverages, a variety of complementary food items, a selection of premium teas, and beverage-related accessories and equipment, primarily through company-operated retail stores.† The company also sells coffee products and tea through other channels like licensed retail stores. According to information obtained from its official website, Starbucks was established in 1985 and its operations are mainly guided by its mission statement: â€Å"To inspire and nurture the human spirit—one person, one cup, and one neighbourhood at a time.† The company also strives to be the world’s leader in production of fine coffee. Its success as the world leader in the coffee industry can be attributed to the differentiation strategy it uses. This report will specifically focus on the United States Segment where the company has its own stores as well as licensed stores. Starbucks is very popular in the US and of notable concern is the fact that its operations are also shaped by trade practices as well as regulations such as North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).The economic forces in the US also shape the operations of the company. However, the US operating segment contributed 69% of total net revenues for the fiscal year 2011. 1.1 Task A: ANALYSIS OF STARBUCKS’ EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT This section of the report critically analyses Starbucks’ external environment. PESTEL analysis will be used to analyse the macro environment while Porter’s five forces model will be used to analyse the micro environment. This part of the paper will also identify the opportunities and threats that exist in the external market. 1.2 PESTEL Analysis There are vario us external factors that shape the operations of Starbucks and PESTEL is an acronym for political, economic, social, technological, environmental as well as legal factors impacting on the operations of the organisation and this too is going to be used to carry out the external environmental analysis. The table in index 1 shows the external factors that impact on the operations of the above mentioned company. Starbucks FY11 Annual Report (2011) shows that the company managed to raise the highest amount of revenue of $11, 7 billion from its operations. This is the highest amount of revenue to be generated by the company after the global economic recession that was witnessed in the US around 2007-2009. The success of the company can be attributed to the external factors that are obtaining in the environment where the company operates. As shown in appendix 1, political stability in the US plays a pivotal role in the success of the

How Fuel Costs Have Affected the Airline Industry Essay

How Fuel Costs Have Affected the Airline Industry - Essay Example The aim of this paper is to discuss all of this, as well as all characteristics and factors involved in the matter of how fuel costs have affected the airline industry. This is what will be dissertated in the following. The six most primary airlines in the United States have been ailing since 2001; four out of these six were in fact forced to file for bankruptcy in 2005. According to some analysts, the entire airline industry is on the brink of collapse altogether; the primary cause being that of ever-increasing fuel prices. "It's very bad right now, it's unsustainable," said Kevin Mitchell, Chairman of the Business Travel Coalition based in Pennsylvania. "It's as bad as it gets. If (oil) goes up another couple of dollars it's going to be more of a pain but it's going to be hardly distinguishable from the pain that the airlines are feeling right now." (Delaney, 2006). In fact, according to Mitchell, the American airline industry basically refused entirely even to recognize the shift in the marketplace five years ago. "They failed to understand that consumers were demanding everyday, low, affordable airfares. The carriers in Europe recognized that and began to take action in 2001 and 2002 to become competitive with low-cost carriers. The US carriers were stubborn throughout the whole time, thinking that as soon as the economy would rebound, so would business travelers willing to pay $2500 for coast to coast fares, and of course that never happened." (Delaney, 2006). In fact Northwest Airlines, the nation's fourth-largest airline which is based in Eagan, Minnesota, has made many headlines since the year unfolded. "It reported $450 million in losses the first quarter of 2005, it's stock prices are declining, it's fuel costs are rising, it asked its labor unions to freeze their current pension programs in lieu of new contribution plans, it is attempting to cut annual labor costs by $1.1 billion, and on July 1 the union representing its mechanics authorized a strike vote." (Oo, 2005). The current spike in oil prices is especially taking its toll; taking the airline industry into uncharted territory and raising many questions about the economic viability of many players in the industry. Increasing fuel prices have also had effects on global trade, which is one of the United States' most profitable resources. "No doubt increasing oil prices are likely to dampen global trade. Air cargo traffic is a leading indicator of any economic slowdown. The air cargo industry itself, in which fuel accounts for 20-30% of the operational cost, is poised to be the prime casualty of the new era of expensive oil," says a report entitled 'The Oil Crisis and its Impact on the Air Cargo Industry.' "Jet fuel prices have almost tripled in the past four years. As a result, the world's airlines spent over $100 billion on fuel in 2005, a 50% increase over 2004. At reasonable oil prices of $30-$40 a barrel, world air cargo traffic was projected triple over current traffic levels." (IAGS, 2006 ). Fuel expenses rank in as the number-one or number-two cost category in regards to the airline industry, and because of this, airlines have an enormous built-in financial incentive to reduce consumption;

Babbit Essay -- Essays Papers

Babbit The depressing tragedy known as Babbitt, by Lewis Sinclair, accurately portrays the convention of life in the 1920’s. Sinclair precisely evokes the conformity and orthodox life styles that shaped a growing culture. Man, in the 1920’s, is caught in a lifestyle where he is continually fed on what to think. Lewis cunningly explains the constraints of convention that plagued George Babbitt, and mocks society as a whole for its lack of liberal views. Babbitt throughout the novel seems to be trapped in a maze, and is told by â€Å"the machine† when to turn. Only when Babbitt revolts against conservative America does his life change, but the question is was it for the better? The economy is booming with success, and your wealth portrays ones position in society. George Babbitt is infatuated with having the latest â€Å"gadgets† and technology in his home, as is the rest of Middle-class America. Lewis portrays society as a group of self-centered people who must have the best of everything (sounds similar to our world today). Middle-class America is disturbingly the same to the last detail in the 1920’s. Life begins for Babbitt waking up to an unappreciative family, and a typical fake show of affection from his wife. Babbitt realizes his life is dull and mundane. Even the kiss from his wife is typical. Babbitt, like most men in the 1920’s, finds his home not as a haven but as a depressing reality of what his life has really become. Babbitt recognizes he is disgusted with his life, and that he doesn’t even love his wife. Only when Babbitt escapes his home does he find satisfaction. Babbitt is found in his community as a role mode l of every businessmen, even the mechanic at the gas station commends him for organization. Babbitt temporarily feels relief when freedom encompasses his life, but later in the novel Babbitt illustrates that even â€Å"business† is shaped by society. Just as business is shaped in Zenith, so are the women who live there. Women in the novel are accurately portrayed as they were in the 1920’s. Lewis presents two different scenarios in the novel, but both of these cases can follow the same mannerisms. First, Lewis depicts the loving housewife. Myra, Babbitt’s wife, continually comforts Babbitt throughout the whole novel. Myra even accepts the blame when Babbitt decides to cheat on her. Women are depicted throughout the novel as inferior when... ...e hand of social order is telling them this is â€Å"ok.† That is why liberal views in Zenith are so quickly extinguished. The superior class wants people to think that there always must be a lower class because that is the way God has planned it, which in retrospect sustains their rank as the higher class forever. It’s ironic that this idea is still relevant today. In conclusion, Babbitt’s revolt toward society had actually changed nothing. He went back to not loving his wife and continuing his job as a realtor. His popularity recovers from his era of revolt. Babbitt regains his place in the world by allowing society to influence his life. He stops fighting and this is the simple reason why his life is a tragedy. How does Babbitt analyze the successfulness of his life? He never took complete control and experienced freedom in any of his actions. He only valued the acceptance of others, rather than what was true to his heart. Babbitt life had no meaning, since he constantly let the constraints of society shape it. One must wonder if society in the 1920’s could have changed by reading this novel. This is not probable, considering that society is the same today as it was 80 years ago.

Once More

Read over something you've written with an eye for the devices you've used to connect the parts. Underline all the transitions, pointing terms, key terms, and repetition. Do you see any patterns? Do you rely on certain devices more than others? Are there any passages that are hard to follow-and if so, can you make them easier to ready by adding appropriate transitions or trying any of the other devices discussed In this chapter. Try revising your text to Include different ones. Pointing words help orient your reader and establish continuity wealth your writing.KEY POINTS use pointing words to help orient your readers. Plotting words point forward or backward to other sentences. Plotting words help to give your paragraphs continuity. Key terms a key term is a word that will be important on whatever subject you need to know, that involves a key term. You'll usually have to define a key term like in social studies a key term would be: Ideology so you would define it as: a set of beliefs and values. Key terms are Vocabulary that someone should know in order to understand the topic. Petition The writer is usually trying to express an emotion or a phrase. Just like in Robert Frost's poem â€Å"Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening† he repeats the last line â€Å"and miles to go before I sleep, and miles to go before I sleep† to stress the extent of his journey and his exhaustion. In â€Å"the charge of the light brigade† repetition was most likely used to honor the men who died. By repeatedly stressing the number of men who fought and died for what they believe in they stress that they will not be easily forgotten.

Quotes From Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks

Rosa Parks was a  civil rights activist, social reformer, and racial justice advocate.  Her arrest for refusing to give up her seat on a city bus triggered the 1965-1966 Montgomery bus boycott and became a turning point of the civil rights movement. Early Life, Work, and Marriage Parks was born Rosa McCauley in Tuskegee, Alabama, on Feb. 4, 1913. Her father, a carpenter, was James McCauley; her mother, Leona Edward McCauley, was a schoolteacher.  Her parents separated when Rosa was 2, and she moved with her mother to Pine Level, Alabama.  She became involved in the African Methodist Episcopal Church from early childhood. Parks, who as a child worked in the fields, took care of her younger brother and cleaned classrooms for school tuition.  She attended the Montgomery Industrial School for Girls and then the Alabama State Teachers College for Negroes, finishing 11th grade there. She married Raymond Parks, a self-educated man, in 1932 and at his urging completed high school.  Raymond Parks was active in civil rights, raising money for the legal defense of the Scottsboro boys, a case in which nine African-American boys were accused of raping two white women.  Rosa Parks began attending meetings with her husband about the cause. She worked as a seamstress, office clerk, domestic, and nurses assistant. She was employed for a time as a secretary on a military base, where segregation wasnt permitted, but she rode to and from work on segregated buses. NAACP Activism She joined the Montgomery, Alabama, NAACP chapter in December 1943, quickly becoming secretary.  She interviewed people around Alabama about their experience of discrimination and worked with the NAACP on registering voters and desegregating transportation. She was key in organizing the Committee for Equal Justice for Recy Taylor, a young African-American woman who had been raped by six white men. In the late 1940s, Parks participated in discussions within civil rights activists about desegregating transportation. In 1953, a boycott in Baton Rouge succeeded in that cause, and the Supreme Courts decision in  Brown v. Board of Education  led to hopefulness for change. Montgomery Bus Boycott On Dec. 1, 1955, Parks was riding a bus home from her job and sat in an empty section between the rows reserved for white passengers at the front and colored passengers at the back.  The bus filled up, and she and three other black passengers were expected to relinquish their seats because a white man was left standing. She refused to move when the bus driver approached them, and he called police.  Parks was arrested for violating Alabamas segregation laws. The black community mobilized a boycott of the bus system, which lasted for 381 days and resulted in the end of segregation on Montgomerys buses. In June 1956, a judge ruled that bus transportation within a state couldnt be segregated. The U.S. Supreme Court later that year affirmed the ruling. The boycott brought national attention to the civil rights cause and to a young minister, the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. After the Boycott Parks and her husband lost their jobs for being involved in the boycott.  They moved to Detroit in August 1957 and continued their civil rights activism.  Rosa Parks went to the 1963 March on Washington, site of Kings I Have a Dream speech.  In 1964 she helped elect John Conyers of Michigan to Congress. She also marched from Selma to Montgomery in 1965. After Conyers election, Parks worked on his staff until 1988.  Raymond Parks died in 1977. In 1987, Parks founded a group to inspire and guide youth in social responsibility. She traveled and lectured often in the 1990s, reminding people of the history of the civil rights movement.  She came to be called the mother of the civil rights movement. She received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1996 and the Congressional Gold Medal in 1999. Death and Legacy Parks continued her commitment to civil rights until her death, willingly serving as a symbol of the civil rights struggle. She died of natural causes on Oct. 24, 2005, at her Detroit home. She was 92.   After her death, she was the subject of almost a full week of tributes, including being the first woman and second African-American who has lain in honor at the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, D.C. Selected Quotations I believe we are here on the planet Earth to live, grow up, and do what we can to make this world a better place for all people to enjoy freedom.I would like to be known as a person who is concerned about freedom and equality and justice and prosperity for all people.Im tired of being treated like a second-class citizen.People always say that I didnt give up my seat because I was tired, but that isnt true. I was not tired physically, or no more tired than I usually was at the end of a working day. I was not old, although some people have an image of me as being old then. I was 42. No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in.I knew someone had to take the first step, and I made up my mind not to move.Our mistreatment was just not right, and I was tired of it.I didnt want to pay my fare and then go around the back door, because many times, even if you did that, you might not get on the bus at all. Theyd probably shut the door, drive off, and leave you standing there.At the time I was arrested I had no idea it would turn into this. It was just a day like any other day. The only thing that made it significant was that the masses of the people joined in.Each person must live their life as a model for others.I have learned over the years that when ones mind is made up, this diminishes fear; knowing what must be done does away with fear.You must never be fearful about what you are doing when it is right.From the time I was a child, I tried to protest against disrespectful treatment.Memories of our lives, of our works and our deeds will continue in others.God has always given me the strength to say what is right.Racism is still with us. But it is up to us to prepare our children for what they have to meet, and, hopefully, we shall overcome.I do the very best I can to look ​upon life with optimism and hope and looking forward to a better day, but I dont think there is anything such as complete happiness. It pains me that there is still a lot of Klan activity and racism. I think when you say youre happy, you have everything that you need and everything that you want, and nothing more to wish for. I havent reached that stage yet.